RON HENGGELER

October 24, 2024
The Battle of Pavia Tapestries at the de Young

Making their US premiere in Art and War in the Renaissance:

This exhibition marks the first time this landmark group of Renaissance tapestries has been on view in the United States. The seven enormous panels, each about 27 by 14 feet, are displayed alongside impressive examples of 16th-century arms and armor. Designed by court artist Bernard van Orley (1487–1541), the Pavia tapestries were groundbreaking creative achievements that incorporated the latest artistic advances. Their vast scale draws viewers into the world of Renaissance politics, technology, and fashion.

The Battle of Pavia Tapestries, this landmark group of Renaissance tapestries commemorates Holy Roman emperor Charles V's 1525 victory over the French king Francis I during the 16th-century Italian Wars. Monumental tapestries were among the most prized Renaissance arts and required remarkable feats of collaboration between artists and weavers-a single panel could take over a year to produce. Their vast scale draws viewers into the world of Renaissance politics, technology, and fashion.

The text is respectfully taken from de Young

CHARLES V AND
THE BATTLE OF PAVIA

The battle of Pavia was a significant event in European history. Fought between the two greatest powers of the time to gain political and geostrategic dominance, the battle's multinational armies included French, Swiss, German, Spanish, Italian, Flemish, Scottish, and English soldiers. It marked the culmination of a conflict between the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V- who reigned over Spain, Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia and controlled the Low Countries, Franche-Comté, and the Habsburg Austrian territories— and the king of France, Francis I, who laid claim to the Duchy of Milan by birthright. The emperor wished to take control of the Duchy of Milan, the "key of Italy," as well as the Duchy of Burgundy, to completely encircle France. Francis I aimed to conquer the Kingdom of Naples and thwart the imperial threat.

From October 1524 to February 1525, French forces laid siege to Pavia, an imperial-held city within the Duchy of Milan, in an attempt to gain ultimate control over the region. Around dawn on February 24, 1525, the massed forces of Charles V (who was in Spain at the time) descended upon the French encampment to break the siege, with resounding success. In a matter of only a few hours, the imperial army won a stunning victory, due in large part to their distinct technical advan-tage, including the novel implementation of arquebusiers (riflemen).

The outcome was of major significance: many of the rank and file of the French army were killed, along with a substantial number of noblemen. Most humiliating of all, Francis I was taken prisoner, leading to a year of captivity for him in Madrid.
The resounding defeat of the French army at Pavia brought an end to longstanding French aspirations to conquer the Northern Italian peninsula and changed the balance of power not only in that region but also throughout the Continent, marking a point of no return in European political and military history.

The text is respectfully taken from de Young

horse in tournament armor ca. 1550-1570
Steel, leather, and cloth

Brescia knight on horseback in tournament armor with
thrusting sword, ca. 1550-1570
Steel, wood, leather, and cloth

Horse armor, deployed on the front lines of battles, in jousting tournaments, and in ceremonial parades, was much rarer and more expensive than armor for men.

The Advance of the Imperial Army and
Counterattack of the French Cavalry Led by King Francis I, ca. 1528-1531
Designed by Bernard van Orley
(Flemish, ca. 1488-1541); woven in the workshop of Willem and Jan
Dermoyen, Brussels (Flemish, both active 1520-1540)
Wool, silk, gold, and silver thread
Museo e Real Bosco di Capodimonte, Naples

Detail of:

The Advance of the Imperial Army and
Counterattack of the French Cavalry Led by King Francis I, ca. 1528-1531
Designed by Bernard van Orley
(Flemish, ca. 1488-1541)

On the right side of the tapestry, in the middle ground, Francis I is depicted at an earlier moment, leading the French cavalry charge. The king-recognizable by the ornate plumage of his helmet, his luxurious armor and clothing, and the fleurs-de-lis that adorn his steed—is followed by his knights. With his sword held high, he prepares to kill his Neapolitan opponent, the Marquis of Civita Sant'Angelo, whose broken lance touches the ground.

In the foreground of the tapestry, the French heavy cavalry charge forward following the unanticipated imperial attack, led by a knight with an open visor.

In the lower right corner, are imperial soldiers from the Spanish advance guard, identifiable by the red X-shaped crosses on the white shirts pulled over their doublets, which allow them to be seen in darkness and not mistaken for the enemy by their allies. They aim their arquebuses toward the French cavalry, often targeting the horses and slaughtering large numbers of the enemy.
The bandoliers slung across their torsos hold cartridges of ammunition. On their waists they carry powder horns and pouches with lead shot. The guns were ignited with a matchlock mechanism: a smoldering cord match held to the flash pan kindled the priming powder, which in turn ignited the propellant in the gun barrel. The arquebusiers moved to the rear to reload their guns, as others advanced to take aim. A selection of sixteenth-century rifles and gunpowder flasks is on view in a later gallery.

Francis I, wearing a helmet with a grand halo of plumes, rides a horse sporting the royal fleurs-de-lis and an ornate headdress. Behind the king is a trio of illustrious knights, including, at left, Grand Écuyer de France, Galeazzo de Sanseverino, identified by an inscription on his raised sword, who died in the battle, and, next to him, on the brown horse, Antoine de Lettes-Desprez, seigneur de Montpensier, whose title appears on his bridle; he was taken prisoner. The ostentatious trappings of the noble cavalrymen made it easy for the imperial arquebusier — troops using arquebus guns (rifles) - to spot and shoot them in large numbers.

In the front ranks are infantry armed with long-barreled guns called arquebuses, two-handed swords, and pikes. Behind them and in the distance, moving to the right, are the imperial cavalry, carrying lances.

In the background, the imperial army can be seen emerging from the woods at dawn. Raising imperial flags and banners with X-shaped saltires (Saint Andrew's or Burgundian crosses) and the Habsburg colors of red, yellow, and white, the army advances to the cadence of a fife and drum.

The thick forest of pikes and lances suggests the power and supremacy of the imperial army. Their adoption of a new military tactical maneuver-known as "pike and shot" - enabled the imperial forces to prevail over the formerly invincible French cavalry offensive.

Brescia knight on horseback in tournament armor with
thrusting sword, ca. 1550-1570
Steel, wood, leather, and cloth

Horse armor, deployed on the front lines of battles, in jousting tournaments, and in ceremonial parades, was much rarer and more expensive than armor for men. Produced in the Northern Italian city of Brescia, this armor's decoration includes an unusual motif of gilded whorls that extend over the entirety of the armor's surfaces. In the center of the breastplate is a worn engraving depicting Saint George slaying the dragon.

Bernard van Orley
(Flemish, ca. 1488-1541) and workshop The Advance of the Imperial Army and Counterattack of the French Cavalry Led by King Francis I, one of seven designs for the series of tapestries The Battle of Pavia, ca. 1526-1528
Pen and brown ink and gray wash on gray-beige paper

The reunion of the presentation drawings and the tapestries provides a rare opportunity to consider the variations from the design to the final product. Here, they include additional elements in the scene on the right of the drawing, cropped in the final tapestry; changes in how the fluttering flags are depicted; the differing ornament on the breastplates of the horses in the foreground; and the comparatively simplified botanical elements. One hypothesis suggests the presentation drawings were once owned by the Flemish artist Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640), and that he might have been responsible for applying subsequent washes, particularly on the horses.

An early stage of the battle is depicted in this tapestry.
The scene takes place in the park surrounding Mirabello Castle, a large, walled hunting estate located just outside Pavia, where the French encamped throughout the months-long siege. During the night, the imperial troops breached the park's brick walls and infiltrated their enemy's position by hiding in the woods. In this scene, the imperial troops advance toward the French army at dawn, drawing them into a trap. In response, the French launch a massive charge of heavy cavalry led by the king, Francis I, himself.

Pompeo della Cesa (Italian, ca. 1537-1610)
Components of an armor garniture, early 17th century
Burnished steel

A garniture is a complete suit of armor composed of exchangeable parts adaptable for equestrian, tourna-ment, or infantry use. The components of this garniture were made for Ranuccio Farnese (1569-1622), son of Alessandro Farnese. It was probably one of the last works completed by the renowned Milanese armorer Pompeo della Cesa before his death. The decoration is spread over the entire surface with a plantlike lattice engraving with a rhomboid pattern, featuring trophies of Farnese family arms and heroic figures.
A church is engraved on the buckler shield —referring to the surname "della Cesa" (of the Church).

"Medallion" armor garniture,
ca. 1575
Steel
Museo e Real Bosco di Capodimonte, Naples

The young Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza and Duke of Castro, likely wore this elegant armor throughout his military campaigns in Flanders, where he was captain general of the army. The garniture's components are decorated with alternately polished and etched bands, with figurative motifs, foliage, and small trophies on a gilt and stippled background.
The oval medallions depict men in heroic-style (all'eroica) armor, allegories of Fame, and mythological characters, including Venus and Cupid. Farnese's character was shaped by humanistic studies, physical education, and training in the use of arms.
Though the armor's military function is clear, the decoration nevertheless emphasizes the wearer's cultural upbringing, exalting his virtue and erudition.

Francis I, wearing a helmet with a grand halo of plumes, rides a horse sporting the royal fleurs-de-lis and an ornate headdress.

The Presentation Drawings
This exhibition marks the first time in modern history that the seven presentation drawings are on view alongside the final tapestries, offering a rare and remarkable glimpse into tapestry designer Bernard van Orley's creative process. Together with his studio assistants, Van Orley would have begun with individual figure sketches before moving on to more elaborate compositional drawings. Though the artist likely did not travel to Pavia, the verisimilitude of the scenes owes to the fact that the battle itself was exhaustively documented in prints, paintings, and poems, as well as in firsthand accounts by those who fought it, particularly German soldiers.
Presentation drawings, or modelli, were finished designs created for the patron's approval. These seven drawings, executed in pen and ink with areas of gray wash, and occasionally accented with red chalk, closely resemble the designs of the final tapestries.
A major difference, however, is the absence of elements one sees in the tapestries: the identifying inscriptions, the more elaborate ornament, and, of course, the color. The approved designs would then have been translated in reverse into cartoons, paintings on paper created at a one-to-one scale of the final tapestry. Today, the cartoons for The Battle of Pavia tapestries are almost entirely lost.

The Imperial Attack on the French Cavalry, Led by the Marquis of Pescara, and on the French Artillery by the
Lansquenets under Georg von Frundsberg,
ca. 1528-1531
Designed by Bernard van Orley
(Flemish, ca. 1488-1541), woven in the workshop of Willem and Jan
Dermoyen, Brussels (Flemish, both active 1520-1540)
Wool, silk, gold, and silver thread
Museo e Real Bosco di Capodimonte, Naples

The chaos and violence of the battlefield is captured in this tapestry as imperial arquebusiers, under the command of the Marquis of Pescara, Fernando (or Ferrante) Francesco d'Avalos, aided by his cousin Alfonso d'Avalos, Marquis of Vasto and commander of the Spanish infantry, decimate the French cavalry.

At the far left, a prominent commander in half-armor astride a gray horse wields a lance over his head to signal his men toward the point of attack. An inscription on the neck of his steed identifies him as the Marquis of Pescara, Fernando (or Ferrante) Francesco d'Avalos, who was among the highest ranked in the Habsburg army at Pavia. The d'Avalos family, of Spanish origin, residing in Naples, later owned these tapestries, which were then bequeathed to the Museo di Capodimonte. D'Avalos, like most commanders shown in the Battle of Pavia series, died before the tapestries were completed. It was a great honor for a military leader to appear in a tapestry, establishing his reputation for posterity.

At center right, another key imperial leader is depicted, standing beside a cannon decorated with fleurs-de-lis: Georg von Frundsberg, the formidable commander of the German lansquenets. Holding an upright halberd (a large polearm topped with an axe blade and, often, a hook), he wears half-armor and the imperial white-and-red sash, with his name picked out in gold letters on his sword's belt. Frundsberg triumphantly signals the capture of the French artillery.

At the right, Germanic mercenary soldiers called landsknechts, also known as lansquenets, led by Georg von Frundsberg, are recognizable by the white-and-red bands they wear over one shoulder. The landsknechts attack the artillery positions held by renegade mercenaries known as the Black Bands, who have been paid to fight for the king of France. These bitter enemies battle to the death, with the imperial infantry prevailing. In the background, the endless rows of upturned pikes convey the imposing scale of the battle.

In the middle foreground, we see a prominent figure in dark blue, one of the landsknechts who were critical for the imperial victory. Admired for their skill and bravery, and feared for their ruthless brutality on and off the battlefield, the landsknechts adopted flamboyant and often outrageous dress in a style known as "puffed and slashed." Underlying fabric was pulled through cuts in the outer layers of clothing to create decorative puffs. Billowing sleeves and voluminous or tight breeches created striking, often intimidating silhouettes. In contrast to a more tempered portrayal of elite military commanders belonging to the nobility, tapestry designer Bernard van Orley exaggerated the facial expressions and dynamic physicality of these fearsome mercenaries.

Detail of: Pompeo della Cesa (Italian, ca. 1537-1610)
armor garniture, early 17th century
Burnished steel

At the center right, another key imperial leader is depicted, standing beside a cannon decorated with fleurs-de-lis: Georg von Frundsberg, the formidable commander of the German lansquenets. Holding an upright halberd (a large polearm topped with an axe blade and, often, a hook), he wears half-armor and the imperial white-and-red sash, with his name picked out in gold letters on his sword's belt. Frundsberg triumphantly signals the capture of the French artillery.

In thew lower right, we see how violent the clash was between the German lansquenets —identifiable by their white-and-red sashes-and the Black Bands fighting for the French. Many of the dead lie at the foot of the artillery. The commander of the French lansquenets, François de Lorraine, is about to be struck from his white horse and killed by a mighty imperial pikeman. Next to him, in the corner, toppled upon his prone horse, is the armored body of Richard de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk. The inscription LA BLANSE ROSE on his horse's bridle refers to the white rose of the House of York.

Detail of: The Imperial Attack on the French Cavalry, Led by the Marquis of Pescara, and on the French Artillery by the
Lansquenets under Georg von Frundsberg,
ca. 1528-1531

Farnese guard triple-combed steel helmet, first half of the
16th century
Burnished and painted steel

is one of twenty-four triple-combed helmets of the Farnese Guard that are housed in the Museo di Capodimonte. The helmet features three ridges along the crown and is prominently decorated on both sides with a fleur-de-lis motif, a symbol of the House of Farnese and, in particular, of Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza and Duke of Castro.

Detail of: The Imperial Attack on the French Cavalry, Led by the Marquis of Pescara, and on the French Artillery by the
Lansquenets under Georg von Frundsberg,
ca. 1528-1531

Detail of: The Imperial Attack on the French Cavalry, Led by the Marquis of Pescara, and on the French Artillery by the
Lansquenets under Georg von Frundsberg,
ca. 1528-1531

Detail of: The Imperial Attack on the French Cavalry, Led by the Marquis of Pescara, and on the French Artillery by the
Lansquenets under Georg von Frundsberg,
ca. 1528-1531

The prominent commander in half-armor astride a gray horse wields a lance over his head to signal his men toward the point of attack. An inscription on the neck of his steed identifies him as the Marquis of Pescara, Fernando (or Ferrante) Francesco d'Avalos, who was among the highest ranked in the Habsburg army at Pavia.

Horse faceplate,
late 15th-early 16th century
Boiled, painted, and gilded leather

Because of their fragility, very few pieces of leather armor from the Renaissance survive. This rare example of a horse faceplate is made of boiled and hardened leather and painted with a blue-green background embellished with a gold-leaf star-and-sun motif. Likely ceremonial and not used in battle, it has raised blinkers and ends in an upward curve at the level of the nostrils. At the center, an applied plaque depicting a heraldic shield, also made of leather, is too worn to be positively identified.

The Surrender of King Francis I, ca. 1528-1531
Designed by Bernard van Orley (Flemish, ca. 1488-1541), woven in the workshop of Willem and Jan Dermoyen, Brussels (Flemish, both active 1520-1540)
Wool, silk, gold, and silver thread Museo e Real Bosco di Capodimonte, Naples

This tapestry depicts the climactic event of the battle: the capture of the king of France by imperial troops. To the left, Francis I is helped off his dying horse-shot with a firearm-by imperial military officers. At the far left, Charles de Lannoy, viceroy of Naples and commander of the imperial army, dismounts to accept the surrender of the king of France.

In the upper left corner, the Habsburg emperor's banner soars high. The red flag displays the Habsburg double-headed eagle alongside Charles V's personal insignia, featuring the Pillars of Hercules and the motto "Plus Ultra" (Further Beyond), here written in French: Plus Oultre.

Brescia knight on horseback in tournament armor with
thrusting sword, ca. 1550-1570
Steel, wood, leather, and cloth

As military technology evolved, and the use of handheld firearms became more common, full horse armor became rare by the middle of the sixteenth century, reserved, as was this set, largely for tournaments.

Detail of: The Surrender of King Francis I, ca. 1528-1531

Detail of: The Surrender of King Francis I, ca. 1528-1531

Brescia knight on horseback in tournament armor with
thrusting sword, ca. 1550-1570
Steel, wood, leather, and cloth

The barding (protective horse armor) is made of rectangular lamellae (thin plates of steel) held together with chains of ring mesh in a "barley grain" style similar to that of typical Ottoman trappings.

The swords raised high by the horsemen in the center of the tapestry denote imperial victory. Francis I was imprisoned in Italy and then taken to Spain. He was released upon signing the 1526 Treaty of Madrid that abandoned French claims to the duchies of Milan and Burgundy and other important territories— terms he broke shortly thereafter. Although hostilities resumed, Habsburg ascendancy in Europe and beyond was determined at the battle of Pavia.

In the left foreground unfolds the battle's climactic scene: the defeat of the French king. The wounded and disjointed body of Francis I is freed from his dying horse by three imperial captains identified with inscriptions:
Count Nicolas von Salm, commander of the German cavalry, is assisted by La Motte de Noyers and Jean, bâtard de Montmartin, Burgundians who fought on the imperial side. Directly behind Francis I and his captors, an imperial knight raises the French Valois sword with two hands as a sign of victory. The trophies that signify Francis's defeat lie scattered on the ground: the royal horse's bridle and headpiece and the scabbard of the king's sword. Blood from the horse's gunshot wound falls onto an arquebus.

Detail of: The Surrender of King Francis I, ca. 1528-1531

Detail of: Brescia knight on horseback in tournament armor with
thrusting sword, ca. 1550-1570
Steel, wood, leather, and cloth

At center, the bearded figure, who has been variously identified, may be another depiction of Charles III, the Duke of Bourbon, present at Francis I's capture (also seen in the detail at right). The raised swords denote victory and are mentioned in contemporary accounts, as is Bourbon's honorable and deferential treatment of Francis I. Following the battle of Pavia, in 1527 Bourbon accompanied the imperial troops south to Rome to relay Charles V's warning to the pope to come to his terms.
Bourbon was famously killed outside the city walls, and the mutinous imperial troops proceeded to sack Rome.
His portrait in the tapestry would honor his service to Charles V.

Detail of: The Surrender of King Francis I, ca. 1528-1531

At the far right, Charles III, Duke of Bourbon— identified by the inscription BOURBON and fleurs-de-lis on the horse's trappings-breaks into a gallop.
Though he was a member of the highest French nobility, he harbored deep animosity toward Francis I over the king's confiscation of the Bourbon estates, among other disputes, and supported the Habsburg cause. With him is Alfonso d'Avalos, Marquis of Vasto, riding a white horse and raising his sword.

The Invasion of the French Camp and the Flight of the Women and Civilians,
ca. 1528-1531
Designed by Bernard van Orley (Flemish, ca. 1488-1541), woven in the workshop of Willem and Jan Dermoyen, Brussels (Flemish, both active 1520-1540)
Wool, silk, gold, and silver thread
Museo e Real Bosco di Capodimonte, Naples

In this tapestry, the imperial forces storm in from the left to capture the French headquarters, overwhelming all resistance. Below, to the right, French soldiers are deployed in two trenches, protected by cannons between wicker-clad emplacements called gabions. The imperial cavalry has already invaded the camp and broken through the second line in pursuit of the French, who take flight into open ground. In the foreground, alarmed civilians in the French army's retinue — family members, auxiliaries, and orderlies-flee to safety in several directions, carrying what they can gather.

Attributed to
Pietro Paolo Malfettano
(Italian, active 16th century)
Rotella shield, ca. 1590
Burnished steel and silver foil
Museo e Real Bosco di Capodimonte, Naples

Renaissance artists frequently depicted mythical or ancient scenes of military heroes to draw parallels with contemporary history and aggrandize their patrons. This beautifully crafted ceremonial shield, with its elaborate relief scene, was once in the Sicilian princely collections. Embossed, chiseled, and damascened with gold and silver, it depicts the sixth-century BC Roman hero Horatius Cocles holding back attackers so that the army can disable a bridge leading into the city. The architecture is not of Rome, but of Palermo, in Sicily, where the shield was made.

In the left foreground, a burly landsknecht wields a hefty double-handed sword to break the pike of his opponent. Such elite, experienced soldiers - armed with huge double-bladed swords, or with halberds (polearms topped with an axe blade and, often, hooks used to unmount horsemen), or with the long firearms called arquebuses —were known as"doppelsoldner" since they received double pay. The landsknechts paid for their clothing and armor — here an impressive set of half-armor with chain mail protecting the chest. Above this group of infantry, imperial cavalry and Germanic pikemen attack the besieged French troops, and a French horseman, identifiable by his white cross, is killed with a lance.

At the top left stands Mirabello Castle, and at the top right is the French camp, composed of white tents. Also at the top left of the tapestry stands Mirabello Castle, near two trenches that protect the French artillery. Its drawbridge is down, allowing the imperial troops, identifiable by their white-and-red sashes, to storm the camp.

In the center of the scene, toward the back, weavers have managed the difficult feat of representing fiery explosions in the French encampment, driving soldiers and mules to scatter. We see the French deployed in two trenches, protected by their artillery positioned between gabions. Critically for the outcome of the battle, none of the French cannons are firing. Although the French had an advantage with their numbers of large guns, they had an inadequate supply of ammunition, and their flawed strategy prevented them from using the artillery, which would have struck their own troops. At the end of the battle, the French artillery was a significant part of the war booty obtained by the imperial troops.

Detail of:
Rotella shield, ca. 1590

Attributed to
Pietro Paolo Malfettano
(Italian, active 16th century)
Burnished steel and silver foil

In the foreground, the French baggage train— civilians in the French army's retinue, including family members of the combatants, vendors, porters, cooks, orderlies, and others who attended to the army's daily operations-begins to flee to the right and left. Led by a bounding hound, a young woman— purse and keys hanging from her waist— escapes with a fluffy dog.

Also part of the baggage train, an elegant lady in a red velvet robe — perhaps a French officer's wife or a courtesan—rides sidesaddle on a white mule with a lavish harness. Details of her fashionable dress, like the puffs of contrasting fabric pulled through slits in the blue sleeves, are meticulously described. Likewise notable are the trappings of the brown mule in front of her, such as the fine net muzzle, the bells and fringe of the harness, and the golden parrot perched on a trunk above the saddle.

At the top left of the tapestry stands Mirabello Castle, near two trenches that protect the French artillery. Its drawbridge is down, allowing the imperial troops, identifiable by their white-and-red sashes, to storm the camp. To its right sit the white tents of the French encampment. A golden tent decorated with fleurs-de-lis-just behind the huge explosion that scatters mules and soldiers in different directions— probably housed the king. It, too, was sacked by Spanish infantry, and the Marquis of Pescara took the tent itself as a war trophy.

The Sortie of the Besieged Imperial
Troops from Pavia, and the Rout of the Swiss Guard, ca. 1528-1531
Designed by Bernard van Orley
(Flemish, ca. 1488-1541), woven in the workshop of Willem and Jan
Dermoyen, Brussels (Flemish, both active 1520-1540)
Wool, silk, gold, and silver thread
Museo e Real Bosco di Capodimonte, Naples

As the battle draws to a close, the imperial commander Antonio de Leyva, who had resisted the French siege for months from the imperial garrison in Visconti Castle, makes a sortie with his soldiers, attacking the remains of the French army. The composition of this tapestry is dominated by a panoramic view of Pavia-largely imaginary, but portraying some recognizable landmarks such as the city's civic towers and the hospital and church of San Matte toward the center of the city. Since the designer of the tapestries, Bernard van Orley, never traveled to Italy, these details were likely drawn from the German artist's Jörg Breu the Elder's woodcut of the battle, and other sources. In the tapestry, this emblematic image of the city of Pavia is associated with the glory of Charles V's resounding victory on the battlefield - providentially on February 24, the emperor's birthday.

Detail of: The Sortie of the Besieged Imperial
Troops from Pavia, and the Rout of the Swiss Guard, ca. 1528-1531

At the upper left is Visconti Castle, the garrison commanded by the Spanish captain Antonio de Leyva, whose soldiers had resisted the French siege for four months. De Leyva's troops make a sortie from the city and strike what remains of the enemy. A Swiss infantry unit, quickly routed, bears the brunt of the Spanish sortie.

Detail of: The Sortie of the Besieged Imperial
Troops from Pavia, and the Rout of the Swiss Guard, ca. 1528-1531

Detail of: The Sortie of the Besieged Imperial
Troops from Pavia, and the Rout of the Swiss Guard, ca. 1528-1531

Farnese guard triple-combed steel helmet, first half of the
16th century
Burnished and painted steel
Museo e Real Bosco di Capodimonte, Naples

At the lower left corner, two soldiers in extravagantly plumed hats are ready to join their compatriots as they scramble over a brick wall to escape the Spanish imperial onslaught. One soldier wields a double-handed sword marked with a white cross over his shoulder and the other, in half-armor, bears the French flag. Most infantry were pikemen, but the most skilled soldiers ("doppelsoldner") wielded halberds (large double-handed swords or polearms topped with ax blades), which they used to penetrate the enemy's pike formation.

Through details in the background we see how the tapestry weavers used fine gradations of color to carry the eye into the distant hills and valleys to create this panoramic, bird's-eye view of Pavia and its environs— an astonishing achievement in the medium of tapestry. Bernard van Orley's design captures the aftermath of the battle in striking detail, from the frenzied soldiers navigating the Ticino River to the covered bridge and city ramparts to the calm of the countryside.

Along the right side of the tapestry flows the Ticino River, with members of the Swiss infantry fleeing toward it for safety. However, upon reaching the riverbank, they discover that the pontoon bridge has been destroyed by the Duke of Alençon, who has already escaped. At this point, the Swiss have no choice but to throw themselves into the rising waters of the river, and many perish by drowning. The weavers show remarkable skill carrying out tapestry designer Bernard van Orley's highly detailed composition, teeming with closely observed plants and figures in animated poses.

Detail of: The Sortie of the Besieged Imperial
Troops from Pavia, and the Rout of the Swiss Guard, ca. 1528-1531

In the middle ground of the tapestry, French soldiers and civilians emerge from some of the encampment's protective dugouts in an effort to quickly escape from these now unsafe positions. Nearby are two French horsemen, one of whom is identified as François de Laval, Count of Montfort, by an embroidered inscription on his horse's bridle reading MOFORT. He is listed among the dead at Pavia.

D'Avalos armor helmet, ca. 155°
Burnished steel
Museo e Real Bosco di Capodimonte, Naples

D'Avalos armor breastplate, ca. 1550
Burnished steel
Musco e Real Bosco di Capodimonte, Naples

Detail of: The Sortie of the Besieged Imperial
Troops from Pavia, and the Rout of the Swiss Guard, ca. 1528-1531

Detail of: The Sortie of the Besieged Imperial
Troops from Pavia, and the Rout of the Swiss Guard, ca. 1528-1531

Detail of: The Sortie of the Besieged Imperial
Troops from Pavia, and the Rout of the Swiss Guard, ca. 1528-1531

Detail of: The Sortie of the Besieged Imperial
Troops from Pavia, and the Rout of the Swiss Guard, ca. 1528-1531

Detail of: The Sortie of the Besieged Imperial
Troops from Pavia, and the Rout of the Swiss Guard, ca. 1528-1531

The Flight of the French Rear Guard under the Duke of Alençon, ca. 1528-1531
Designed by Bernard van Orley
(Flemish, ca. 1488-1541), woven in the workshop of Willem and Jan
Dermoyen, Brussels (Flemish, both active 1520-1540)
Wool, silk, gold, and silver thread
Museo e Real Bosco di Capodimonte, Naples

Another key event of the battle unfolds in this tapestry.
At the left and center, battlefield skirmishes show the formerly invincible heavy French cavalry, weighed down by head-to-toe armor, routed by the nimbler Spanish cavalry wearing half-armor on smaller, more agile horses. French cavalry are toppled by the onslaught of the Spanish attack.

Detail of: The Flight of the French Rear Guard under the Duke of Alençon, ca. 1528-1531

Detail of: The Flight of the French Rear Guard under the Duke of Alençon, ca. 1528-1531

Brescia knight on horseback in tournament armor with
thrusting sword, ca. 1550-1570
Steel, wood, leather, and cloth

Horse armor, deployed on the front lines of battles, in jousting tournaments, and in ceremonial parades, was much rarer and more expensive than armor for men. Produced in the Northern Italian city of Brescia, this armor's decoration includes an unusual motif of gilded whorls that extend over the entirety of the armor's surfaces. In the center of the breastplate is a worn engraving depicting Saint George slaying the dragon. The barding (protective horse armor) is made of rectangular lamellae (thin plates of steel) held together with chains of ring mesh in a "barley grain" style similar to that of typical Ottoman trappings. As military technology evolved, and the use of handheld firearms became more common, full horse armor became rare by the middle of the sixteenth century, reserved, as was this set, largely for tournaments.

Detail of: The Flight of the French Rear Guard under the Duke of Alençon, ca. 1528-1531

At lower left, a soldier desperately clings to a branch to save himself from drowning, as feathered berets and discarded weapons float by. Elements that can be seen beneath the rippling water, such as the soldier's body, showcase the masterful skill of the weavers to replicate painterly detail and illusionistic effects. Their sophisticated and varied weaving techniques required using a high warp count and ever-finer shades of dyed silk and wool to capture subtle color variations such as the veins of the soldier's hand.

Detail of: The Flight of the French Rear Guard under the Duke of Alençon, ca. 1528-1531

Detail of: The Flight of the French Rear Guard under the Duke of Alençon, ca. 1528-1531

At right, the French rear guard, stranded on the bank of the Ticino River by enemy cavalry, seeks to escape by crossing the river on a pontoon bridge. On orders of the Duke of Alençon, the pontoon bridge is destroyed to prevent the imperial soldiers from pursuing the fleeing soldiers. A French foot soldier in red unmoors the bridge from the left bank of the river with his halberd (a large polearm combining an axe blade and, often, a hook), as two soldiers-one carrying a drum and broken pike and the other the Swiss flag— rush toward safety.

Detail of: The Flight of the French Rear Guard under the Duke of Alençon, ca. 1528-1531

In the background, in the upper part of the tapestry, the bucolic landscape with fields of grazing herds of cattle and gentle wooded hills —more Flemish than Italian in inspiration-suggests a world of peace and safety remote from the horrors of war shown in the battlefield.

Detail of: The Flight of the French Rear Guard under the Duke of Alençon, ca. 1528-1531

Detail of: The Flight of the French Rear Guard under the Duke of Alençon, ca. 1528-1531

Overwhelmed by the unstoppable Spanish breakthrough, Charles IV, Duke of Alençon, brother-in-law of Francis I and commander of the French rear guard, leaves his position and, instead of engaging in combat, retreats to the other side of the Ticino River, shown at far right. In France, his actions will lead to accusations of cowardice and treachery, although his tactics ensured the survival of his troops.

With his red lance held skyward, a French horseman rushes to cross to the other side of the Ticino River before the bridge is destroyed.
In the distance just to his right, at the very edge of the tapestry, we see a horseman from behind. The inscription DE ALENSO on his horse's golden caparison (cloth covering) identifies him as the Duke of Alençon, who escorts the French cavalry to the right bank of the river, safe from the pursuit of the enemy.

Border detail of: The Flight of the French Rear Guard under the Duke of Alençon, ca. 1528-1531

Detail of: Brescia knight on horseback in tournament armor with
thrusting sword, ca. 1550-1570
Steel, wood, leather, and cloth

The barding (protective horse armor) is made of rectangular lamellae (thin plates of steel) held together with chains of ring mesh in a "barley grain" style similar to that of typical Ottoman trappings. As military technology evolved, and the use of handheld firearms became more common, full horse armor became rare by the middle of the sixteenth century, reserved, as was this set, largely for tournaments.

Border detail of: The Flight of the French Rear Guard under the Duke of Alençon, ca. 1528-1531

All seven tapestries were originally framed by rich borders. The top and side borders were decorated with garlands of flowers, fruits, birds, and animals; the bottom border featured aquatic motifs. The borders were later removed from the tapestries, but by the time they were bequeathed to the Museo di Capodimonte, the borders of three of the tapestries-including this one—had been restored on the top and sides with floral borders from the original series. The borders on the other four tapestries are painted on fabric to resemble the originals. On the right border of this tapestry is Willem and Jan Dermoyen's weavers' mark.

The Incursion of the Imperial Baggage
Train into the Battlefield, and the
Surrender of the Swiss Pikemen of the
French Army, ca. 1528-1531
Designed by Bernard van Orley
(Flemish, ca. 1488-1541), woven in the workshop of Willem and Jan
Dermoyen, Brussels (Flemish, both active 1520-1540)
Wool, silk, gold, and silver thread
Museo e Real Bosco di Capodimonte, Naples

In this panoramic view of the battlefield, the Swiss infantry, fighting for the French, lay down their arms and abandon the battle. As troops of Swiss mercenaries signal their surrender, Swiss captain Johann von Diesbach valiantly offers up his life to an imperial knight to uphold his honor by dying on the battlefield. From the left, the imperial baggage train —the civilians who traveled with the army, including family members, porters, cooks, merchants, engineers, surgeons, clergy, and others - makes its way from their encampment through a breach in the wall to the park occupied by the French. As the defeat of the French troops becomes evident, they rush to the field to claim the spoils of war.

At the bottom left, in the foreground of the tapestry, a churlish mercenary soldier accompanied by a young boy, perhaps his son or a page, catches our eye as he bounds forward with some chickens hanging from his pike—a common trope of plunder. Behind him, a friar and a few richly attired women enter the battlefield, while a chained monkey climbs above his cage, which has been loaded on the back of a horse. In this scene, tapestry designer Bernard van Orley created numerous picturesque details of the imperial baggage train, or camp followers, many of whom would hurry to pick over the battlefield for loot upon the French troops' defeat. The weavers expertly capture the varied facial expressions of the motley entourage and vivid details like the multicolored chicken feathers.

Detail of: The Incursion of the Imperial Baggage
Train into the Battlefield, and the
Surrender of the Swiss Pikemen of the
French Army, ca. 1528-1531

Detail of: The Incursion of the Imperial Baggage
Train into the Battlefield, and the
Surrender of the Swiss Pikemen of the
French Army, ca. 1528-1531

Border detail of: The Incursion of the Imperial Baggage
Train into the Battlefield, and the
Surrender of the Swiss Pikemen of the
French Army, ca. 1528-1531

Detail of: The Incursion of the Imperial Baggage
Train into the Battlefield, and the
Surrender of the Swiss Pikemen of the
French Army, ca. 1528-1531

Detail of: The Incursion of the Imperial Baggage
Train into the Battlefield, and the
Surrender of the Swiss Pikemen of the
French Army, ca. 1528-1531

Border detail of: The Incursion of the Imperial Baggage
Train into the Battlefield, and the
Surrender of the Swiss Pikemen of the
French Army, ca. 1528-1531

In the upper right side of the tapestry, a crucial event unfolds. Identifiable by the white crosses on their doublets and jerkins, the Swiss mercenaries, who make up the bulk of the French infantry, abandon their formations, not hearing the pleas of their officers. The Swiss pikemen have been cut off by the sudden imperial cavalry charge.
Facing the enemy, they realize their imminent defeat and discard their pikes at their feet, a sign of surrender.

In the upper left corner of the tapestry, the double-headed Habsburg eagle on one of the tents indicates the location of the imperial camp. The civilian camp followers and some imperial soldiers, identified by red saltire (X-shaped) crosses, have begun to move through the defenses and breaches in the wall enclosing the French camp. Loaded with baskets and chests, they prepare to plunder the battlefield.

In the foreground, the figure in light blue clothing wielding an immense pike that reaches from top to bottom of the tapestry is the valiant Swiss captain
Johann von Diesbach, who offers up his life to an imperial knight whose sword is raised to deliver a fatal blow. By dying on the battlefield, Diesbach upholds his honor. The weavers have captured the splendor of the imperial horsemen in gleaming armor at right, identified by their red-and-white sashes and mounted on steeds.

Brescia knight on horseback in tournament armor with
thrusting sword, ca. 1550-1570
Steel, wood, leather, and cloth

Border detail of: The Incursion of the Imperial Baggage
Train into the Battlefield, and the
Surrender of the Swiss Pikemen of the
French Army, ca. 1528-1531

Detail of: The Incursion of the Imperial Baggage
Train into the Battlefield, and the
Surrender of the Swiss Pikemen of the
French Army, ca. 1528-1531

The Battle of Pavia Tapestries at the de Young

"Medallion" armor garniture,
ca. 1575
Steel
Museo e Real Bosco di Capodimonte, Naples

The young Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza and Duke of Castro, likely wore this elegant armor throughout his military campaigns in Flanders, where he was captain general of the army. The garniture's components are decorated with alternately polished and etched bands, with figurative motifs, foliage, and small trophies on a gilt and stippled background.

The oval medallions depict men in heroic-style (all'eroica) armor, allegories of Fame, and mythological characters, including Venus and Cupid. Farnese's character was shaped by humanistic studies, physical education, and training in the use of arms.
Though the armor's military function is clear, the decoration nevertheless emphasizes the wearer's cultural upbringing, exalting his virtue and erudition.

At center foreground, an agitated group of soldiers represents the defeated French troops. To the left a soldier rests his hand on the blade of an immense two-handed sword in the ground that served as a gathering spot for troops during the battle. Discarded weapons at their feet, a cowering drummer and fifer seem to sink under the weight of their heavy chains bedecked with fleurs-de-lis and a red rampant animal. A standard-bearer next to them allows the French flag to fall to the ground, signaling the imminent defeat of the French forces.
Nearby, soldiers wearing white crosses and imploring expressions doff their hats in humility and hold their right hands up in the air toward the imposing imperial horseman, indicating their submission.

Detail of: Brescia knight on horseback in tournament armor with
thrusting sword, ca. 1550-1570
Steel, wood, leather, and cloth

Attributed to
Pietro Paolo Malfettano
(Italian, active 16th century)
Rotella shield, ca. 1590
Burnished steel and silver foil
Museo e Real Bosco di Capodimonte, Naples

Renaissance artists frequently depicted mythical or ancient scenes of military heroes to draw parallels with contemporary history and aggrandize their patrons. This beautifully crafted ceremonial shield, with its elaborate relief scene, was once in the Sicilian princely collections. Embossed, chiseled, and damascened with gold and silver, it depicts the sixth-century BC Roman hero Horatius Cocles holding back attackers so that the army can disable a bridge leading into the city. The architecture is not of Rome, but of Palermo, in Sicily, where the shield was made.

D'Avalos armor helmet, ca. 1550
Burnished steel
Museo e Real Bosco di Capodimonte, Naples

D'Avalos armor breastplate, ca. 1550
Burnished steel
Musco e Real Bosco di Capodimonte, Naples

Detail of: Brescia knight on horseback in tournament armor with
thrusting sword, ca. 1550-1570
Steel, wood, leather, and cloth

The Battle of Pavia Tapestries at the de Young